Is Poverty the Cause of Illiteracy?
In a previous post we had discussed whether illiteracy was the cause of poverty. A number of readers have enquired whether poverty can be the cause of illiteracy. We explore the argument in this post.
At one level the proposition can come across as valid. The poor would not have the income to afford education for their children and would, by necessity, keep the latter out of school. The very poor would need to supplement the household income with the earnings of children giving rise to the prevalence of child labor. The very, very poor would not even have enough to afford the upkeep of their children and be forced to give them up to madrassas providing free care.
This line of thinking would lead one to conclude that countries with widespread poverty would have widespread illiteracy.
How then would one account for the very wide variation in literacy rates across groups that suffered from more or less similar levels of poverty at one time? If readers look up the data they would note that Sri Lanka and Pakistan must have had similar per capita incomes at some point in the past. Yet today Sri Lanka has over 90 percent literacy compared to just about 50 percent in Pakistan.
In India, Kerala has the highest literacy rate while being nowhere close to the richest among the states. So it is clearly not poverty alone that holds back literacy.
The flaw in relating illiteracy to poverty is that there is no overriding necessity for primary education to be available on a fee-for-service basis. Why should parents have to pay for the basic education of their children? Why shouldn’t parents be paid to have their children educated?
Two arguments can be made for this point of view. First, literacy is a fundamental human right and it should be the obligation of the state to make it available on a priority basis out of general revenues. Second, it has long been known that social returns to basic education are very high (i.e., the gains to society from educating its population far exceed the costs of the education because of the increased productivity of labor). Therefore rational societies should invest public resources in educating their citizens.
So the question is why did some societies (East Asian countries, for example) do so and others still don’t?
We can think of an interesting case that can provoke a lot of thinking. Balochistan is the most lightly populated province in Pakistan with about 10 million people. Of these only about half are ethnic Balochis. It is well known that some Balochi tribal chiefs have had an income in the millions of dollars as payment for the use of natural resources extracted from their lands. The question is why have these tribal chiefs not used this income to provide basic education to their followers?
We will let readers answer this question. But one conclusion should be obvious – there is more to illiteracy than just poverty or lack of resources or lack of political will. Surely it should be clear that some societies have an incentive to educate their citizens and others don’t.
The real clues to the continued prevalence of illiteracy would be found in thinking through the incentives. The low political priority to educate citizens in some places is a story waiting to be told.
for further enquiries contact kengadaffi@yahoo.com
Is illiteracy the cause of poverty?
For Causes of Poverty, click here
Wednesday, February 24, 2010
Is Illiteracy the Cause of Poverty?
Is Illiteracy the Cause of Poverty?
It is often argued that illiteracy is the biggest problem in South Asia and also that illiteracy is the reason for poverty. What is the evidence for such assertions?
Let us start with a couple of concrete examples:
Over the past fifteen years, the proportion of the population living under extreme poverty in Pakistan has risen from 13 to 33 percent but illiteracy has declined during this period. Therefore, the explanation for the increase in poverty in Pakistan cannot be attributed to illiteracy.
India has a considerably higher literacy rate than Pakistan but the incidence of poverty in India was comparable to that in Pakistan for many years. The recent trend in poverty reduction in India cannot be attributed to a sudden increase in literacy.
This is not to argue that illiteracy does not matter. Clearly a literate work force can be much more productive than an illiterate one everything else remaining the same. And literacy can contribute positively to the quality of life of an individual for which reason it is considered a basic human right. But the fact remains that there is not sufficient evidence to establish that illiteracy is the most basic reason for poverty.
Similarly, there is also no obvious link between poverty and the lack of democracy and human rights. The most dramatic reductions in poverty have been in East Asian countries under non-democratic governments much criticized for their human rights records. By comparison, poverty reduction in democratic India has been much slower. Once again, this is not an argument for authoritarian governance; there are many other unrelated benefits of democracy. The point is that there seems no direct link between the lack of democracy and the incidence of poverty.
A closer look at the evidence might suggest that the causes of poverty have less to do with literacy or democracy and much more to do with economic and political policies.
The evidence of the impact of economic policies on poverty reduction is quite impressive. East Asia is a well documented example where the number of people living on less than one dollar a day has fallen almost two-thirds, from 720 million in 1975 to 210 million in 2002 almost entirely because of the rapidity of economic growth. India has also begun moving in the right direction after key economic reforms have relaxed the stifling grip of the ‘license Raj.’
On the other side are countries like Pakistan where ruling groups allocate the bulk of national resources to defense, foreign policy adventures, fomenting domestic strife to manipulate political power or in stifling business to protect vested interests. It is not surprising that foreign and domestic investors are reluctant to invest in such countries. Without investment, there is little job growth; and without job growth little prospect of reduction in poverty.
The political and economic choices of such ruling groups are not directly influenced or constrained by the illiteracy of their populations. Policies, good or bad, are all decided by people who are quite literate. What we need to explain is why some literate ruling groups make consistently bad political and economic decisions. One such decision is not investing in raising the literacy levels of their populations. Why did Sri Lanka and China invest in raising their literacy levels to over 90 percent while Pakistan and Bangladesh remain at around 40 percent? Why is the rural education program in India so weak compared to its urban program?
What we really need to explain is the persistence of illiteracy in some countries or parts of some countries. And this has to do with the interests, choices and decisions of the literate sections of these countries.
When analysts begin to explain the political economy of continued impoverishment, when people understand the real causes of their poverty, and when political parties mobilize them on the basis of this understanding, perhaps then there will be hope for change in countries that have shortchanged their citizens by keeping them poor and illiterate.
Is Poverty the cause of illiteracÿ? CLick here
Causes of Poverty CLick here
It is often argued that illiteracy is the biggest problem in South Asia and also that illiteracy is the reason for poverty. What is the evidence for such assertions?
Let us start with a couple of concrete examples:
Over the past fifteen years, the proportion of the population living under extreme poverty in Pakistan has risen from 13 to 33 percent but illiteracy has declined during this period. Therefore, the explanation for the increase in poverty in Pakistan cannot be attributed to illiteracy.
India has a considerably higher literacy rate than Pakistan but the incidence of poverty in India was comparable to that in Pakistan for many years. The recent trend in poverty reduction in India cannot be attributed to a sudden increase in literacy.
This is not to argue that illiteracy does not matter. Clearly a literate work force can be much more productive than an illiterate one everything else remaining the same. And literacy can contribute positively to the quality of life of an individual for which reason it is considered a basic human right. But the fact remains that there is not sufficient evidence to establish that illiteracy is the most basic reason for poverty.
Similarly, there is also no obvious link between poverty and the lack of democracy and human rights. The most dramatic reductions in poverty have been in East Asian countries under non-democratic governments much criticized for their human rights records. By comparison, poverty reduction in democratic India has been much slower. Once again, this is not an argument for authoritarian governance; there are many other unrelated benefits of democracy. The point is that there seems no direct link between the lack of democracy and the incidence of poverty.
A closer look at the evidence might suggest that the causes of poverty have less to do with literacy or democracy and much more to do with economic and political policies.
The evidence of the impact of economic policies on poverty reduction is quite impressive. East Asia is a well documented example where the number of people living on less than one dollar a day has fallen almost two-thirds, from 720 million in 1975 to 210 million in 2002 almost entirely because of the rapidity of economic growth. India has also begun moving in the right direction after key economic reforms have relaxed the stifling grip of the ‘license Raj.’
On the other side are countries like Pakistan where ruling groups allocate the bulk of national resources to defense, foreign policy adventures, fomenting domestic strife to manipulate political power or in stifling business to protect vested interests. It is not surprising that foreign and domestic investors are reluctant to invest in such countries. Without investment, there is little job growth; and without job growth little prospect of reduction in poverty.
The political and economic choices of such ruling groups are not directly influenced or constrained by the illiteracy of their populations. Policies, good or bad, are all decided by people who are quite literate. What we need to explain is why some literate ruling groups make consistently bad political and economic decisions. One such decision is not investing in raising the literacy levels of their populations. Why did Sri Lanka and China invest in raising their literacy levels to over 90 percent while Pakistan and Bangladesh remain at around 40 percent? Why is the rural education program in India so weak compared to its urban program?
What we really need to explain is the persistence of illiteracy in some countries or parts of some countries. And this has to do with the interests, choices and decisions of the literate sections of these countries.
When analysts begin to explain the political economy of continued impoverishment, when people understand the real causes of their poverty, and when political parties mobilize them on the basis of this understanding, perhaps then there will be hope for change in countries that have shortchanged their citizens by keeping them poor and illiterate.
Is Poverty the cause of illiteracÿ? CLick here
Causes of Poverty CLick here
Monday, February 22, 2010
Causes of Poverty
I. Types of causes of poverty
A. Individual
Poverty is explained by individual circumstances and/or characterstics of poor people. Some examples are:
* amount of education, skill, experience, intelligence.
* health, handicaps, age.
* work orientation, time horizon, culture of poverty.
* discrimination, together with race, sex, etc.
B. Aggregate
There are two types of aggregate poverty theory: case and generic. There is no agreement on which is the correct explanation of most poverty.
1. Case. Add up all poverty explained by individual theories, and that is equal to total or aggregate poverty. In other words, according to case theories of poverty, individual and aggregate explanations are really the same. According to these theories, aggregate poverty is just the sum of individual poverty.
2. Generic. Poverty is explained by general, economy-wide problems, such as
* inadequate non-poverty employment opportunities
* inadequate overall demand (macro problems, macro policy)
* low national income (Less Developed Country)
If generic theories are correct, poverty is caused by one set of forces (general, economy-wide problems) but distributed according to individual theories.
II. Case vs. Generic Theories of Poverty
A. What difference does it make whether poverty is caused by case or generic causes?
Answer: It makes a lot of difference.
Example #1: Suppose somehow we significantly reduce racial discrimination. Will total poverty fall?
Case answer: Yes.
Generic answer: No. Poverty will only be redistributed.
Example #2: Suppose we give poor people effective skill training and compensatory education. Will total poverty fall?
Case answer: Yes.
Generic answer: No. Poverty will only be redistributed.
B. What can you do about poverty?
1. If case theories are correct: Address the individual cause of poverty. For example, if poverty is caused by inadequate skills or education, then the solution is skill training or compensatory education. If poverty is caused by discrimination, then the solution is antidiscrimination policies.
2. If generic theories are correct: Improve the quantity and quality of jobs.
C. How can you tell which is correct--case or generic theories?
1. Remember that the things that cause poverty in case theories explain its distribution in generic theories. Because of this, both theories are consistent with the same facts (statistics). Therefore, it is very difficult, maybe impossible, to determine which is correct through direct test.
2. There's some indirect evidence pointing to generic theories: For example, there is the failure of poverty to fall during periods of large training programs, and the failure of poverty to fall with rise in general educational level of population. Further indirect evidence later on in the course.
3. Most people assume case theories are correct. Why?
* Micro experience (fallacy of composition -- assuming that what's true of the part must be true of the whole).
* Poverty scholars study the poor instead of the economy.
* Antipoverty policy would be too hard (expensive) if generic theories were true.
* Blaming the victim.
* A desire to help the poor. (P.S. If generic theories are true, how can you help the poor?)
Source: Maxwell School, Syracuse University
Acute causes of poverty:
* Warfare: The material and human destruction caused by warfare is a major development problem. For example, from 1990 to 1993, the period encompassing Desert Storm, per capita GDP in Iraq fell from $3500 to $761. The drop in average income, while a striking representation of the drop in the well-being of the average Iraqi citizen in the aftermath of the war, fails to capture the broader affects of damages to the infrastructure and social services, such as health care and access to clean water.
* Agricultural Cycles: People who rely on fruits and vegetables that they produce for household food consumption (subsistence farmers) often go through cycles of relative abundance and scarcity. For many families that rely on subsistence production for survival, the period immediately prior to harvest is a 'hungry period.' During these periods of scarcity, many families lack sufficient resources to meet their minimal nutritional needs. Being familiar with these cycles has enabled development practitioners to anticipate and prepare for periods of acute need for assistance.
* Droughts and Flooding: Besides the immediate destruction caused by natural events such as hurricanes, environmental forces often cause acute periods of crisis by destroying crops and animals.
* Natural Disasters: Natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes have devastated communities throughout the world. Developing countries often suffer much more extensive and acute crises at the hands of natural disasters, because limited resources inhibit the construction of adequate housing, infrastructure, and mechanisms for responding to crises.
Entrenched factors associated with poverty:
* Colonial Histories: One of the most important barriers to development in poor countries is lack of uniform, basic infrastructure, such as roads and means of communication. Some development scholars have identified colonial history as an important contributor to the current situation. In most countries with a history of colonization, the colonizers developed local economies to facilitate the expropriation of resources for their own economic growth and development.
* Centralization of Power: In many developing countries, political power is disproportionately centralized. Instead of having a network of political representatives distributed equally throughout society, in centralized systems of governance one major party, politician, or region is responsible for decision-making throughout the country. This often causes development problems. For example, in these situations politicians make decisions about places that they are unfamiliar with, lacking sufficient knowledge about the context to design effective and appropriate policies and programs.
* Corruption: Corruption often accompanies centralization of power, when leaders are not accountable to those they serve. Most directly, corruption inhibits development when leaders help themselves to money that would otherwise be used for development projects. In other cases, leaders reward political support by providing services to their followers.
* Warfare: Warfare contributes to more entrenched poverty by diverting scarce resources from fighting poverty to maintaining a military. Take, for example, the cases of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The most recent conflict over borders between the two countries erupted into war during 1999 and 2000, a period when both countries faced severe food shortages due to drought.
* Environmental degradation: Awareness and concern about environmental degradation have grown around the world over the last few decades, and are currently shared by people of different nations, cultures, religions, and social classes. However, the negative impacts of environmental degradation are disproportionately felt by the poor. Throughout the developing world, the poor often rely on natural resources to meet their basic needs through agricultural production and gathering resources essential for household maintenance, such as water, firewood, and wild plants for consumption and medicine. Thus, the depletion and contamination of water sources directly threaten the livelihoods of those who depend on them.
* Social Inequality: One of the more entrenched sources of poverty throughout the world is social inequality that stems from cultural ideas about the relative worth of different genders, races, ethnic groups, and social classes. Ascribed inequality works by placing individuals in different social categories at birth, often based on religious, ethnic, or 'racial' characteristics. In South African history, apartheid laws defined a binary caste system that assigned different rights (or lack thereof) and social spaces to Whites and Blacks, using skin color to automatically determine the opportunities available to individuals in each group.
Source: MSU Women and International Development
Addressing the Underlying Causes of Poverty
Building a more widespread commitment to overcoming poverty is an essential first step in overcoming poverty, and actions to address this are discussed below.
* Share the benefits of economic growth through an emphasis on more widespread employment.
The phenomenon of jobless economic growth that increases income inequalities and generates too few jobs for low income groups poses a serious threat to the well-being of many nations, both North and South. Government policies should consider not only aggregate economic impact but also the distribution of employment. Socially responsible venture capital and microcredit initiatives can foster employment-generating businesses that complement the local culture and environment.
* Rout out corruption, which harms society as a whole.
Corruption, both in government and business, places heavy cost on society. Businesses should enact, publicize and follow codes of conduct banning corruption on the part of their staff and directors. Citizens must demand greater transparency on the part of both government and the corporate sector and create reform movements where needed.
* Broaden access to education and technology among marginalized groups, and especially among girls and women.
The educational attainment of women has strong bearing on the well-being of their families, and efforts to improve education for women and girls must be strengthened. At the same time, steps should be taken to ensure that the current revolution in information technology benefits marginalized groups. This must begin in school.
* Improve government capacity to provide universal access to essential goods and services, including potable water, affordable food, primary health care, education, housing and other social services.
Governments around the world have made commitments to this through the 20/20 Initiative, which calls for 20% of national budgets and 20% of foreign aid to be spent on human services. But raising adequate resources through effective taxation and other mechanisms is often politically difficult. New mechanisms for public policy dialogue that enable citizens of all classes to recognize the benefit of universal access to key services must be put in place. Nonprofit groups and even corporations can provide essential support here, helping articulate a vision of a healthy society. These nongovernmental actors can also help in the actual provision of services.
Source: Synergos - University for a Night
# Additional Resources: Global Issues
# World Bank: PovertyNet
# UNDP: Poverty Reduction
Do you have any suggestions for resources or supplemental text for the above? Suggestions are welcome! Send an email to Hari Srinivas at: hsrinivas@gdrc.org
Do you have any comments to make?
Please include them in the form available below.
* "Should we instead be asking 'What causes wealth??' What is it that pulls people out of poverty? How can opportunities be created for low-income people to improve their condition? What will motivate them? No easy answers ... "
- Dr. Tony Walsh, USA
* "Have you considered the theories of the causes of poverty from the perspective that the causes of poverty are layered into international, national, national- local, and individual levels? The interactions between the economic, social, informational, cultural and political factors at the international, national, national-local and individual layer have to provide the job, so that the interactions between the economic, social, informational, cultural and political factors at the national, national-local and individual layer can provide a suitably equipped individual to take advantage of the job. (international layer would also be included if for example international NGOs, UN, etc... got involved with the country).
* At each level of abstraction, either individual, national-local, national, or international, there are a range of factors that interact within and between the levels of abstraction that influence the creation of correctly skilled individuals, the creation of opportunities for those individuals to exploit, the creation of the means for those correctly skilled individuals to exploit the wealth generating oppurtunites, and lastly the desire to do so. Therefore we see four important metrics generated by the interplay of factors within and between the different levels of abstraction, with no single metric being determined by anyone single level of abstraction; these are: Skills, Opportunity, Means, and Desire.
If you have any comments on this document, please send an email to - Dr. Gabriel KEN
kengadaffi@yahoo.com
A. Individual
Poverty is explained by individual circumstances and/or characterstics of poor people. Some examples are:
* amount of education, skill, experience, intelligence.
* health, handicaps, age.
* work orientation, time horizon, culture of poverty.
* discrimination, together with race, sex, etc.
B. Aggregate
There are two types of aggregate poverty theory: case and generic. There is no agreement on which is the correct explanation of most poverty.
1. Case. Add up all poverty explained by individual theories, and that is equal to total or aggregate poverty. In other words, according to case theories of poverty, individual and aggregate explanations are really the same. According to these theories, aggregate poverty is just the sum of individual poverty.
2. Generic. Poverty is explained by general, economy-wide problems, such as
* inadequate non-poverty employment opportunities
* inadequate overall demand (macro problems, macro policy)
* low national income (Less Developed Country)
If generic theories are correct, poverty is caused by one set of forces (general, economy-wide problems) but distributed according to individual theories.
II. Case vs. Generic Theories of Poverty
A. What difference does it make whether poverty is caused by case or generic causes?
Answer: It makes a lot of difference.
Example #1: Suppose somehow we significantly reduce racial discrimination. Will total poverty fall?
Case answer: Yes.
Generic answer: No. Poverty will only be redistributed.
Example #2: Suppose we give poor people effective skill training and compensatory education. Will total poverty fall?
Case answer: Yes.
Generic answer: No. Poverty will only be redistributed.
B. What can you do about poverty?
1. If case theories are correct: Address the individual cause of poverty. For example, if poverty is caused by inadequate skills or education, then the solution is skill training or compensatory education. If poverty is caused by discrimination, then the solution is antidiscrimination policies.
2. If generic theories are correct: Improve the quantity and quality of jobs.
C. How can you tell which is correct--case or generic theories?
1. Remember that the things that cause poverty in case theories explain its distribution in generic theories. Because of this, both theories are consistent with the same facts (statistics). Therefore, it is very difficult, maybe impossible, to determine which is correct through direct test.
2. There's some indirect evidence pointing to generic theories: For example, there is the failure of poverty to fall during periods of large training programs, and the failure of poverty to fall with rise in general educational level of population. Further indirect evidence later on in the course.
3. Most people assume case theories are correct. Why?
* Micro experience (fallacy of composition -- assuming that what's true of the part must be true of the whole).
* Poverty scholars study the poor instead of the economy.
* Antipoverty policy would be too hard (expensive) if generic theories were true.
* Blaming the victim.
* A desire to help the poor. (P.S. If generic theories are true, how can you help the poor?)
Source: Maxwell School, Syracuse University
Acute causes of poverty:
* Warfare: The material and human destruction caused by warfare is a major development problem. For example, from 1990 to 1993, the period encompassing Desert Storm, per capita GDP in Iraq fell from $3500 to $761. The drop in average income, while a striking representation of the drop in the well-being of the average Iraqi citizen in the aftermath of the war, fails to capture the broader affects of damages to the infrastructure and social services, such as health care and access to clean water.
* Agricultural Cycles: People who rely on fruits and vegetables that they produce for household food consumption (subsistence farmers) often go through cycles of relative abundance and scarcity. For many families that rely on subsistence production for survival, the period immediately prior to harvest is a 'hungry period.' During these periods of scarcity, many families lack sufficient resources to meet their minimal nutritional needs. Being familiar with these cycles has enabled development practitioners to anticipate and prepare for periods of acute need for assistance.
* Droughts and Flooding: Besides the immediate destruction caused by natural events such as hurricanes, environmental forces often cause acute periods of crisis by destroying crops and animals.
* Natural Disasters: Natural disasters such as hurricanes and earthquakes have devastated communities throughout the world. Developing countries often suffer much more extensive and acute crises at the hands of natural disasters, because limited resources inhibit the construction of adequate housing, infrastructure, and mechanisms for responding to crises.
Entrenched factors associated with poverty:
* Colonial Histories: One of the most important barriers to development in poor countries is lack of uniform, basic infrastructure, such as roads and means of communication. Some development scholars have identified colonial history as an important contributor to the current situation. In most countries with a history of colonization, the colonizers developed local economies to facilitate the expropriation of resources for their own economic growth and development.
* Centralization of Power: In many developing countries, political power is disproportionately centralized. Instead of having a network of political representatives distributed equally throughout society, in centralized systems of governance one major party, politician, or region is responsible for decision-making throughout the country. This often causes development problems. For example, in these situations politicians make decisions about places that they are unfamiliar with, lacking sufficient knowledge about the context to design effective and appropriate policies and programs.
* Corruption: Corruption often accompanies centralization of power, when leaders are not accountable to those they serve. Most directly, corruption inhibits development when leaders help themselves to money that would otherwise be used for development projects. In other cases, leaders reward political support by providing services to their followers.
* Warfare: Warfare contributes to more entrenched poverty by diverting scarce resources from fighting poverty to maintaining a military. Take, for example, the cases of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The most recent conflict over borders between the two countries erupted into war during 1999 and 2000, a period when both countries faced severe food shortages due to drought.
* Environmental degradation: Awareness and concern about environmental degradation have grown around the world over the last few decades, and are currently shared by people of different nations, cultures, religions, and social classes. However, the negative impacts of environmental degradation are disproportionately felt by the poor. Throughout the developing world, the poor often rely on natural resources to meet their basic needs through agricultural production and gathering resources essential for household maintenance, such as water, firewood, and wild plants for consumption and medicine. Thus, the depletion and contamination of water sources directly threaten the livelihoods of those who depend on them.
* Social Inequality: One of the more entrenched sources of poverty throughout the world is social inequality that stems from cultural ideas about the relative worth of different genders, races, ethnic groups, and social classes. Ascribed inequality works by placing individuals in different social categories at birth, often based on religious, ethnic, or 'racial' characteristics. In South African history, apartheid laws defined a binary caste system that assigned different rights (or lack thereof) and social spaces to Whites and Blacks, using skin color to automatically determine the opportunities available to individuals in each group.
Source: MSU Women and International Development
Addressing the Underlying Causes of Poverty
Building a more widespread commitment to overcoming poverty is an essential first step in overcoming poverty, and actions to address this are discussed below.
* Share the benefits of economic growth through an emphasis on more widespread employment.
The phenomenon of jobless economic growth that increases income inequalities and generates too few jobs for low income groups poses a serious threat to the well-being of many nations, both North and South. Government policies should consider not only aggregate economic impact but also the distribution of employment. Socially responsible venture capital and microcredit initiatives can foster employment-generating businesses that complement the local culture and environment.
* Rout out corruption, which harms society as a whole.
Corruption, both in government and business, places heavy cost on society. Businesses should enact, publicize and follow codes of conduct banning corruption on the part of their staff and directors. Citizens must demand greater transparency on the part of both government and the corporate sector and create reform movements where needed.
* Broaden access to education and technology among marginalized groups, and especially among girls and women.
The educational attainment of women has strong bearing on the well-being of their families, and efforts to improve education for women and girls must be strengthened. At the same time, steps should be taken to ensure that the current revolution in information technology benefits marginalized groups. This must begin in school.
* Improve government capacity to provide universal access to essential goods and services, including potable water, affordable food, primary health care, education, housing and other social services.
Governments around the world have made commitments to this through the 20/20 Initiative, which calls for 20% of national budgets and 20% of foreign aid to be spent on human services. But raising adequate resources through effective taxation and other mechanisms is often politically difficult. New mechanisms for public policy dialogue that enable citizens of all classes to recognize the benefit of universal access to key services must be put in place. Nonprofit groups and even corporations can provide essential support here, helping articulate a vision of a healthy society. These nongovernmental actors can also help in the actual provision of services.
Source: Synergos - University for a Night
# Additional Resources: Global Issues
# World Bank: PovertyNet
# UNDP: Poverty Reduction
Do you have any suggestions for resources or supplemental text for the above? Suggestions are welcome! Send an email to Hari Srinivas at: hsrinivas@gdrc.org
Do you have any comments to make?
Please include them in the form available below.
* "Should we instead be asking 'What causes wealth??' What is it that pulls people out of poverty? How can opportunities be created for low-income people to improve their condition? What will motivate them? No easy answers ... "
- Dr. Tony Walsh, USA
* "Have you considered the theories of the causes of poverty from the perspective that the causes of poverty are layered into international, national, national- local, and individual levels? The interactions between the economic, social, informational, cultural and political factors at the international, national, national-local and individual layer have to provide the job, so that the interactions between the economic, social, informational, cultural and political factors at the national, national-local and individual layer can provide a suitably equipped individual to take advantage of the job. (international layer would also be included if for example international NGOs, UN, etc... got involved with the country).
* At each level of abstraction, either individual, national-local, national, or international, there are a range of factors that interact within and between the levels of abstraction that influence the creation of correctly skilled individuals, the creation of opportunities for those individuals to exploit, the creation of the means for those correctly skilled individuals to exploit the wealth generating oppurtunites, and lastly the desire to do so. Therefore we see four important metrics generated by the interplay of factors within and between the different levels of abstraction, with no single metric being determined by anyone single level of abstraction; these are: Skills, Opportunity, Means, and Desire.
If you have any comments on this document, please send an email to - Dr. Gabriel KEN
kengadaffi@yahoo.com
Saturday, November 21, 2009
LESSON 11 Working in Groups
WORKING IN GROUPS
There are several factors that influence the quality of group work.
a. Informational resources: The better informed members are about the problem they are required to solve the better they are to reach a high quality decision.
b. Quality of Group Efforts: Group members should be careful in checking and rechecking information in other to help them make good decisions. Sloppily done work usually leads to poor decisions and negative consequences.
c. Quality of Thinking: Members need to arrive at appropriate conclusion through carefully thought out decisions based on the available materials and information.
d. Decision Logic: To reach the best decision, members should carefully consider the positive and negative qualities of all available choices and then selecting alternatives that offers the most positive and least negative attributes.
Problem solving procedures:
1. Ineffective problem Solving: This method uses decision making processes that fail to consider information or that thwarts the group process.
a. Autocratic decision making: Here the group leader decides which solution is best and then announces this decision to the group. Members have no option than to go along with the group leaders decision.
b. Minority decision making: Similar to the autocratic decisions, however here, the decision is made by a small number of group members.
c. rushing to judgement: In this situation, the group takes decision without proper investigation and discussions. Group may make this decision because of limited time and fatigue.
d. Mob rule. This is the worst method of group decision making. it is a rush to judgement couple with strong emotions. Usually these decisions create more problems than they solve.
Effective or rational model of problem solving
a. Define the problem
b. Investigate the problem
c. Set criteria for a solution
d. formulate possible solutions
e. Select the best alternatives
f. Put the chosen solution into Effect
g. Decide what happens to the group.
Group Leadership
A leader is somebody who guides and directs others. A leader influences the behavior of others. A leader is that person who is strong willed, forceful and drives the group towards its goal.
An effective group leader is one who is capable of using a number of leadership styles and adopts a style best suited to the needs of the group at any given moment.
Traits of leadership:
1. Vision: Ability to see where the group should go.
2. Direction: Ability to help the group to remain focused to their goals.
3. Mediation: Ability to mediate and balance in group and out group relationship.
CREATION OF LEADERS
Leaders are often assigned to post by rank, election or authority. Military groups have officers, committees have chairs appointed by officials, a board elects one of its own as president.
Generally, leaders are created in the following ways.
a. Appointed Leaders: This is a leader appointed by members of the group
b. Emergent leaders: This is a leader that comes to the fore from the body of the group.
Leadership responsibilities.
1. Group Leaders should be prepared: See to the accomplishment of their tasks and those of the group. Involve in Research, Homework, and devote time to think about the group and its work.
2. Group Leaders need to be sensitive to group needs: They need to know when to encourage or discourage discussions, they need to balance the tensions between task activities and relational activities, maintain groups focus, and motivate the group at all times.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
1. Authoritarian: This is a structured, centralized style where leaders exercise tight control over group’s activities. This style is used when time is limited, group members are disoriented, and members trust the leader and when group leaders have the power to enforce decisions. Examples of roles that involve authoritarian leadership styles are, military, quasi military, teachers of small children, tour guides and crew chiefs.
2. Democratic: This style involves the leader making consultation with the group and after hearing its views, makes a decision. A democratic leader is not one who submits every issues to a vote of the group but rather is one who allows the group to express opinions about the problems to be solved. Final responsibility for the decision, however rests on with the leader.
3. Consensus Seeking: In this mode, the group leader is regarded as “first among equals” than possessing more power and rank than others. A consensus seeking leader is one who functions as a discussion leader and mediator, and summarizer. The leader elicits opinions from the group, tries to help discover a common ground for the individual concerns of members, and then makes sure all understand to what they have agreed. A consensus seeking style works best when members are informed, willing to interact, and flexible enough to make concessions in order to reach and agreement.
4. Laissez-faire: The last style of leadership is known as laissez-faire. this style is translated as “ Let the people do as they please”. The leader does little or nothing to influence the group’s decisions and actions. The Laissez faire leader is one who sits back and let’s happens what happens. While this may seem a road to disaster, laissez faire is often the best approach when group members are highly motivated, capable and self motivated. When all are doing what they are supposed to be doing, the best policy is to leave them alone to do their work.
There are several factors that influence the quality of group work.
a. Informational resources: The better informed members are about the problem they are required to solve the better they are to reach a high quality decision.
b. Quality of Group Efforts: Group members should be careful in checking and rechecking information in other to help them make good decisions. Sloppily done work usually leads to poor decisions and negative consequences.
c. Quality of Thinking: Members need to arrive at appropriate conclusion through carefully thought out decisions based on the available materials and information.
d. Decision Logic: To reach the best decision, members should carefully consider the positive and negative qualities of all available choices and then selecting alternatives that offers the most positive and least negative attributes.
Problem solving procedures:
1. Ineffective problem Solving: This method uses decision making processes that fail to consider information or that thwarts the group process.
a. Autocratic decision making: Here the group leader decides which solution is best and then announces this decision to the group. Members have no option than to go along with the group leaders decision.
b. Minority decision making: Similar to the autocratic decisions, however here, the decision is made by a small number of group members.
c. rushing to judgement: In this situation, the group takes decision without proper investigation and discussions. Group may make this decision because of limited time and fatigue.
d. Mob rule. This is the worst method of group decision making. it is a rush to judgement couple with strong emotions. Usually these decisions create more problems than they solve.
Effective or rational model of problem solving
a. Define the problem
b. Investigate the problem
c. Set criteria for a solution
d. formulate possible solutions
e. Select the best alternatives
f. Put the chosen solution into Effect
g. Decide what happens to the group.
Group Leadership
A leader is somebody who guides and directs others. A leader influences the behavior of others. A leader is that person who is strong willed, forceful and drives the group towards its goal.
An effective group leader is one who is capable of using a number of leadership styles and adopts a style best suited to the needs of the group at any given moment.
Traits of leadership:
1. Vision: Ability to see where the group should go.
2. Direction: Ability to help the group to remain focused to their goals.
3. Mediation: Ability to mediate and balance in group and out group relationship.
CREATION OF LEADERS
Leaders are often assigned to post by rank, election or authority. Military groups have officers, committees have chairs appointed by officials, a board elects one of its own as president.
Generally, leaders are created in the following ways.
a. Appointed Leaders: This is a leader appointed by members of the group
b. Emergent leaders: This is a leader that comes to the fore from the body of the group.
Leadership responsibilities.
1. Group Leaders should be prepared: See to the accomplishment of their tasks and those of the group. Involve in Research, Homework, and devote time to think about the group and its work.
2. Group Leaders need to be sensitive to group needs: They need to know when to encourage or discourage discussions, they need to balance the tensions between task activities and relational activities, maintain groups focus, and motivate the group at all times.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
1. Authoritarian: This is a structured, centralized style where leaders exercise tight control over group’s activities. This style is used when time is limited, group members are disoriented, and members trust the leader and when group leaders have the power to enforce decisions. Examples of roles that involve authoritarian leadership styles are, military, quasi military, teachers of small children, tour guides and crew chiefs.
2. Democratic: This style involves the leader making consultation with the group and after hearing its views, makes a decision. A democratic leader is not one who submits every issues to a vote of the group but rather is one who allows the group to express opinions about the problems to be solved. Final responsibility for the decision, however rests on with the leader.
3. Consensus Seeking: In this mode, the group leader is regarded as “first among equals” than possessing more power and rank than others. A consensus seeking leader is one who functions as a discussion leader and mediator, and summarizer. The leader elicits opinions from the group, tries to help discover a common ground for the individual concerns of members, and then makes sure all understand to what they have agreed. A consensus seeking style works best when members are informed, willing to interact, and flexible enough to make concessions in order to reach and agreement.
4. Laissez-faire: The last style of leadership is known as laissez-faire. this style is translated as “ Let the people do as they please”. The leader does little or nothing to influence the group’s decisions and actions. The Laissez faire leader is one who sits back and let’s happens what happens. While this may seem a road to disaster, laissez faire is often the best approach when group members are highly motivated, capable and self motivated. When all are doing what they are supposed to be doing, the best policy is to leave them alone to do their work.
Sunday, November 8, 2009
Lesson 10: Conversational Skills
- Conversation
Conversation is the informal exchange of opinions and information for pleasure. It is often regarded as casual or small talk between two or more people.
Conversation is important in any form of relationship. Conversation is not only making small talk, it involves a number of pleasant and intelligent skills.
We need to know how to open conversation, keep it going and bring it to a close.
Our conversational style may indicate our thoughts, feelings and also provide cues to how our remarks are to be interpreted.
Conversational Skills
Conversational skills require the ability to initiate, maintain and close a conversation.
- Initiating Conversation: Opening a conversation, getting the other person to talk is not always easy. In opening conversation, it is helpful to remember the purpose of the opener. The purpose of conversational opener is (1) to recognize the other party and (2) to say something that will prompt an appropriate response.
The subject matter of a conversational opener is oftentimes of little importance. We have three basic options,
(i) Themselves e.g, Hi My name is .............. I am a student of HRU
(ii) The other person e.g Thats a nice shirt you are have on, where did you get it?
(iii) The situation e.g The weather today is quite hot, isn’t it?
The three can be combined e.g what do you think I should do about the Intercultural Communication paper we have to write next week.
Another helpful conversational opener is the subject matter of the opener. We can state a fact, give an opinion or express a feeling.
(i) Themselves – facts e.g I’m from .....................
(ii) The other person – opinions e.g I really like the color of your jacket
(iii) The situation – feelings e.g How do you feel about being in a class this big.
Failure to start a conversation does not necessarily mean that we are poor conversationalist. Some people are less responsive than others while some may be unavailable to talk because of the press of demand. If a conversational opener is unsuccessful, then we should try another approach or try another person. No matter how tempting the bait is not every cast catches a fish.
- Maintaining Conversation
After initiating conversation, there will be a transition where by the talk is shifted to a topic or topics which will allow the conversation to continue. We may also decide to break off the conversation and move to a conclusion. If we desire to prolong the conversation, we can do so in several ways.
- Be more knowledgeable and interesting:- we communicate from our experiences, if we limit our experience , we limit our potential areas of discussion. Knowledge comes from general reading or specific studies. Being informed about current events, international, national and local can easily provide materials for talk.
- Pay attention to the stories we hear. We need to know how to recount events in a way that engages the attention of others. Stories may be jokes but they do not have to be. Some stories are sobering, others are scary. People enjoy hearing a well-told story even if it is only a minute or two in length.
- Make appropriate responses to what is being said: Unwarranted conclusions can bring a conversation to an abrupt end.
- Be sensitive to the feelings expressed by our conversational partners: When we are sympathetic to what the other person is expressing, our conversation is more likely to be successful.
- Making Self-disclosure:- revealing appropriate information about ourselves helps to build relationship. When one person reveals personal information, the other party will respond in kind.
- Directing Conversation into new areas:- when we reach the limit of a topic, we introduce a second one much in the same way we opened a conversation initially. For example you can switch from talking about the football team to basketball team if the two people engaged in the conversation are interested in sports.
- Practice question linking. This involves linking the response of your conversational partner in the form of a question.
- Use non verbal Cues. Maintaining interpersonal distance shows a person is interested in continuing the exchange. Leaning forward, nodding, eye contacts and facial moods can help to indicate when a person wishes to continue the conversation or ends.
- CLOSING CONVERSATION
Conversation will eventually reach an ending point no matter how short or long it may be. Sometimes both partners may stop talking and walk away. This type of ending is unsatisfactory.
There are several ways we can end conversation. Here is a list of closing techniques.
a. Recognize the conversation is one way. For example, we can end a conversation by saying “Its been nice talking to you”, “I am glad things worked out for you”, You’ve had some interesting experience”
b. Present a pressing claim. Here you can disclose another committment or interest that should be met. E.g Well, I need to go home, or I have to to go back to the office now or please excuse me I have another appointment.
c. Finish with a farewell:- Goodbye, See you later, Thanks for everything, talk to you again soon, take care etc.
d. Shift position away from the partner
e. Breaking Eye contact
f. Leave taking behaviours. for example, pack your belongings Put on your coat, take out your car keys.
Sunday, October 25, 2009
LESSON 9: Interpersonal Communication Skills
Interpersonal Communication Skills
Developing interpersonal communication skills is vitally important in today’s workplace. Even though you are an individual contributor in the workplace, you still need to communicate effectively with your boss as well as customers. Almost all kinds of work require communicating with people. Most people have colleagues with whom they need to communicate in order to be successful at their job.
When we communicate, we don't actually swap ideas, we swap symbols that stand for ideas. Words are just symbols that do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in certain ways to convey an idea or give it a meaning, and no two people use the same word in the same sense at all instances.
The symbols attached to these words are a function of who we are, our social upbringing and culture, which will pretty much vary quite widely in today's work environment.
Our personal communication skills would be largely dependant on our cultural background and unique histories. As a result, there is a real possibility that when two of us get together there are chances that we are less effective at communicating with each other than we would like.
Interpersonal communication requires Good listening Skills and Conversational Skills.
1. LISTENING SKILLS
During Interpersonal Communication, we need to think about what to do not only as senders, but also as receivers. Before we can respond appropriately to others, we need to understand the sender, the message and our possible response. To do this, we need good listening skills.
Listening refers to paying thoughtful attention to the verbal and non-verbal cues of others.
There are two things involved in listening.
1. Listening for Ideas: We need to try to gather facts or follow a line of logical thinking. Listening for ideas is the kind of listening that focuses on the main point, for example students do as part of the learning process, the kind of listening a patient does when the doctor explains ailment and medications. The main goal of listening is comprehension and retention of information.
Factors that affect listening.
1. Lack of concentration
2. Noise
3. Trying to take a message word for word
Factors that aids good listening and to retain information.
1. Link new knowledge with old knowledge.
2. Pay attention to main points
3. Tying ideas together, e.g connect the word to an image
4. Ask for a repetition of an idea or ask for clarification.
5. Don’t be too hasty to respond.
6. Take notes for reference
Listening for Feelings
Good listening is also attentive to feelings. It is important to recognize what the other person is going through from their utterance. Here comprehension of details is not so important. To respond effectively, one must pay close attention to both the words and the non verbal cues. For example a smile can contradict a seemingly serious statement. Eye blinking, hand movement may signal the true emotional of the speaker.
Listening for facts or ideas and feelings provides us with basis for interacting with people. Good listening skills enhance communication in a variety of ways, in conversation, in comforting, and in conflict resolution.
CLICK HERE FOR LESSON 8
Developing interpersonal communication skills is vitally important in today’s workplace. Even though you are an individual contributor in the workplace, you still need to communicate effectively with your boss as well as customers. Almost all kinds of work require communicating with people. Most people have colleagues with whom they need to communicate in order to be successful at their job.
When we communicate, we don't actually swap ideas, we swap symbols that stand for ideas. Words are just symbols that do not have inherent meaning; we simply use them in certain ways to convey an idea or give it a meaning, and no two people use the same word in the same sense at all instances.
The symbols attached to these words are a function of who we are, our social upbringing and culture, which will pretty much vary quite widely in today's work environment.
Our personal communication skills would be largely dependant on our cultural background and unique histories. As a result, there is a real possibility that when two of us get together there are chances that we are less effective at communicating with each other than we would like.
Interpersonal communication requires Good listening Skills and Conversational Skills.
1. LISTENING SKILLS
During Interpersonal Communication, we need to think about what to do not only as senders, but also as receivers. Before we can respond appropriately to others, we need to understand the sender, the message and our possible response. To do this, we need good listening skills.
Listening refers to paying thoughtful attention to the verbal and non-verbal cues of others.
There are two things involved in listening.
1. Listening for Ideas: We need to try to gather facts or follow a line of logical thinking. Listening for ideas is the kind of listening that focuses on the main point, for example students do as part of the learning process, the kind of listening a patient does when the doctor explains ailment and medications. The main goal of listening is comprehension and retention of information.
Factors that affect listening.
1. Lack of concentration
2. Noise
3. Trying to take a message word for word
Factors that aids good listening and to retain information.
1. Link new knowledge with old knowledge.
2. Pay attention to main points
3. Tying ideas together, e.g connect the word to an image
4. Ask for a repetition of an idea or ask for clarification.
5. Don’t be too hasty to respond.
6. Take notes for reference
Listening for Feelings
Good listening is also attentive to feelings. It is important to recognize what the other person is going through from their utterance. Here comprehension of details is not so important. To respond effectively, one must pay close attention to both the words and the non verbal cues. For example a smile can contradict a seemingly serious statement. Eye blinking, hand movement may signal the true emotional of the speaker.
Listening for facts or ideas and feelings provides us with basis for interacting with people. Good listening skills enhance communication in a variety of ways, in conversation, in comforting, and in conflict resolution.
CLICK HERE FOR LESSON 8
LESSON 8: Communicating with others one to one.
Communicating with others one to one.
Interpersonal communication is sending and receiving of messages between parties, usually in close visual and aural proximity which allows for immediate feedback and close attention to verbal and nonverbal cues.
In simple terms, Interpersonal communication is sending and receiving of messages between a small number of people who can see and hear each other with immediate feedback.
Interpersonal communication is different from Public Communication because of the number of people and the proximity involved.
Number of People
Interpersonal Communication involves a small number of participants. It is often referred to as Dyadic communication, when two people are involved, e.g husband and wife, or two friends. When three people are involved in Communication it is known as Triadic communication for example a couple talking to a real estate agent about a house they want to rent.
When the number of people becomes enlarge beyond three it is referred to as small group.
Proximity.
Proximity is an important element of interpersonal communication. The communication is usually unmediated unlike in mass communication whereby something comes between the sender and the final receiver of the message. Interpersonal communication is often face to face communication, for example a teacher and student talking at the teacher’s desk, a patient seeing the doctor to discuss symptoms of illness.
Features of Interpersonal Communication
- Use of less formal language:- The small number of people and proximity affects the nature of language used in interpersonal communication. We usually use language that is less formal than that of writing or public speaking.
- The proximity of interpersonal communication allows for verbal and non verbal cues. Through a series of small movement and gestures, we can know when a conversation needs to continue or end.
- Close proximity also allows for physical contact which is expected. For example a business interview almost universally opens with a handshake, children may want to be held while their comforts them.
- Interpersonal Communication requires immediate feedback since both parties can see and hear each other. Feedback is a very essential element of interpersonal communication. A phone conversation is a form of interpersonal communication, but while it involves a small number of close aural proximity, it eliminates all non verbal cues with the exception of paralinguistic.
LESSON 7: The Ethics in Communication
The Ethics in Communication.
Communication is one of the most basic human activities, a process by which we engage ourselves with others for understanding, for cooperation and the accomplishment of variety of goals.
However complex or simple our interactions are, we interfere on each other in multiple ways. We influence each other through communication and recognize that communication is not a neutral activity. We influence each other in positive and negative ways, for good and for bad.
When Communicating, we do not simply choose words, we choose words for the effect they will have on our audiences, on ourselves, and ultimately, on society. Thus when we communicate, we cannot escape ethical questions, questions which ask how helpful or harmful our actions are.
An awareness of the ethical dimensions of communication provides us with a deeper understanding or ourselves and of our potentials as human beings.
THE NATURE OF ETHICS
Ethics refers to the study of morality's effect on conduct: the study of moral standards and how they affect conduct.
It refers to the code of morality: a system of moral principles governing the appropriate conduct for a person or group.
Ethics is the study of what, is the best course of action, the right or wrong of our actions and policies, be those actions communicative, political, social, personal or a mixture of areas.
ETHICS AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF COMMUNICATION
Ethical questions are often related to politics. This is because administrators are often faced with questions of truthfulness. When we turn to non political questions, we sometimes think that ethics only focus on issues such as wars or capital punishment. These are certainly significant matters, but the major ethical issues are matters of how to behave in our daily lives and in our relationships with those with whom we have personal contact at home, at school or at work.
Because communication is relational, it brings us face to face with questions that contain ethical judgments. We must decide what is the purpose or purposes of a relationship in which we find ourselves. We must decide how to behave. We must choose how to respond in that situation. Our responses will be based on how we regard the other party or parties and what the consequences of our actions will be. All of these are basic ethical questions in that they involve our deciding what is the “best” course of action.
Ethical Communication is therefore important because.
a. It helps to determine how to behave in our daily lives.
b. it helps to shape our relationship with others
c. it helps to determine the purpose of the relationship we find ourselves.
d. it helps us to consider the consequence of our actions.
e. It helps us to decide the best course of action.
GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL COMMUNICATION
To make the best decision in our communication, and to communicate ethically, we must give thought to the manner in which we communicate. Rules are applied to different communication situations in which we find ourselves. These situations are vast and varying and the following guidelines can help to make ethical communications.
1. Be respectful to your audience
2. Consider the consequence of your communication
3. Respect the truth
4. Use Information Properly ( Adequate and Accurate)
5. Don’t falsify Information
6. Respect the rights of others to information.
Communication is one of the most basic human activities, a process by which we engage ourselves with others for understanding, for cooperation and the accomplishment of variety of goals.
However complex or simple our interactions are, we interfere on each other in multiple ways. We influence each other through communication and recognize that communication is not a neutral activity. We influence each other in positive and negative ways, for good and for bad.
When Communicating, we do not simply choose words, we choose words for the effect they will have on our audiences, on ourselves, and ultimately, on society. Thus when we communicate, we cannot escape ethical questions, questions which ask how helpful or harmful our actions are.
An awareness of the ethical dimensions of communication provides us with a deeper understanding or ourselves and of our potentials as human beings.
THE NATURE OF ETHICS
Ethics refers to the study of morality's effect on conduct: the study of moral standards and how they affect conduct.
It refers to the code of morality: a system of moral principles governing the appropriate conduct for a person or group.
Ethics is the study of what, is the best course of action, the right or wrong of our actions and policies, be those actions communicative, political, social, personal or a mixture of areas.
ETHICS AS AN INTEGRAL PART OF COMMUNICATION
Ethical questions are often related to politics. This is because administrators are often faced with questions of truthfulness. When we turn to non political questions, we sometimes think that ethics only focus on issues such as wars or capital punishment. These are certainly significant matters, but the major ethical issues are matters of how to behave in our daily lives and in our relationships with those with whom we have personal contact at home, at school or at work.
Because communication is relational, it brings us face to face with questions that contain ethical judgments. We must decide what is the purpose or purposes of a relationship in which we find ourselves. We must decide how to behave. We must choose how to respond in that situation. Our responses will be based on how we regard the other party or parties and what the consequences of our actions will be. All of these are basic ethical questions in that they involve our deciding what is the “best” course of action.
Ethical Communication is therefore important because.
a. It helps to determine how to behave in our daily lives.
b. it helps to shape our relationship with others
c. it helps to determine the purpose of the relationship we find ourselves.
d. it helps us to consider the consequence of our actions.
e. It helps us to decide the best course of action.
GUIDELINES FOR ETHICAL COMMUNICATION
To make the best decision in our communication, and to communicate ethically, we must give thought to the manner in which we communicate. Rules are applied to different communication situations in which we find ourselves. These situations are vast and varying and the following guidelines can help to make ethical communications.
1. Be respectful to your audience
2. Consider the consequence of your communication
3. Respect the truth
4. Use Information Properly ( Adequate and Accurate)
5. Don’t falsify Information
6. Respect the rights of others to information.
Friday, September 4, 2009
LESSON 6: VERBAL AND NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
VERBAL AND NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
The most common and general way of classifying communication is to see it as verbal or non verbal.
1. Non-Verbal Communication: This involves the use of non-words to communicate. There are three types of Non-Verbal communication.
a. Body Language: e.g Facial Expression, gestures, postures, clothing, artifacts e.t.c)
b. Paralanguage e.g hisses, whistling
c. Distance. e.g
2. Verbal Communication: This involves the use of words or language symbols which are
assumed to have common meanings to all the participants in the communication process.
The use of language in communication becomes very important in so far as it is unique to human beings.
COMMUNICATION WITH SPACE.
Distance and Communication: The space we inhabit may also be used in communication likewise the distance maintained by people in different situations carry meanings as does the behaviour.
When people are in close contact, they see each other's entire body so relationship and communication are formal. This is called public distance which is 12 feet and beyond.
Social Distance occurs when people are from four feet to twelve feet. This distance is used for business and more formal personal interactions.
The third category is known as Personal Distance. This ranges between eighteen inches to four feet. Here people maintain personal relationships which may range from close to cool. When people enter this range, they begin to approach each other on personal terms.
The Fourth Category is referred to as Intimate Distance. Here we feel as though the other person is contacting us physically even though the person may not be touching us. It ranges from zero to eighteen inches.
Note that within intimate distance, people may experience flight to flight response. This means they respond to hostility, fight or move away flight. Another option is to embrase, hug, kiss, dance e.t.c Intimate distance is so close that people have difficulty allowing people to exist within that space without relating to them.
The most common and general way of classifying communication is to see it as verbal or non verbal.
1. Non-Verbal Communication: This involves the use of non-words to communicate. There are three types of Non-Verbal communication.
a. Body Language: e.g Facial Expression, gestures, postures, clothing, artifacts e.t.c)
b. Paralanguage e.g hisses, whistling
c. Distance. e.g
2. Verbal Communication: This involves the use of words or language symbols which are
assumed to have common meanings to all the participants in the communication process.
The use of language in communication becomes very important in so far as it is unique to human beings.
COMMUNICATION WITH SPACE.
Distance and Communication: The space we inhabit may also be used in communication likewise the distance maintained by people in different situations carry meanings as does the behaviour.
When people are in close contact, they see each other's entire body so relationship and communication are formal. This is called public distance which is 12 feet and beyond.
Social Distance occurs when people are from four feet to twelve feet. This distance is used for business and more formal personal interactions.
The third category is known as Personal Distance. This ranges between eighteen inches to four feet. Here people maintain personal relationships which may range from close to cool. When people enter this range, they begin to approach each other on personal terms.
The Fourth Category is referred to as Intimate Distance. Here we feel as though the other person is contacting us physically even though the person may not be touching us. It ranges from zero to eighteen inches.
Note that within intimate distance, people may experience flight to flight response. This means they respond to hostility, fight or move away flight. Another option is to embrase, hug, kiss, dance e.t.c Intimate distance is so close that people have difficulty allowing people to exist within that space without relating to them.
Friday, August 21, 2009
LESSON 5: UNDERSTANDING LANGUAGE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND THOUGHT.
The relationship between language and thought is not very clear. It is sometimes argued that Language comes before thought and for some people thoughts come before language.
Language can be said to come before thought because thinking cannot occur without a language. On the other hand, thought can be said to come before language because if people don't think, they will never have a language to think about. All in all, it is generally believed that language facilitates thought. In other words, languages help people to think and without language people wouldn't think and so language and thought are interrelated.
MEANING OF LANGUAGE
Language is very important in human communication. According to Longman dictionary of contemporary English, language is " the system of human expression by means of words".
Gimson ( 1980) defines language as a system of conventional signals used for communication by a whole community.
Language can simply be defined as the human use of spoken or written words as a communication system.
USE OF LANGUAGE
1. language is used by human beings to communicate ideas, facts, feelings, beliefs and predisposition among themselves
2. Language helps people to understand each other.
3. Language is used to transfer knowledge
LANGUAGE SKILLS
There are four language skills needed in communication.
a. Speaking
b. Writing
These two skills are referred to as Expressive or productive language skills
c. Listening
d. Reading
These two skills are referred to as receptive language skills
It is important to note that in the process of communication, the expressive skills takes precedence over the receptive skills. This is because, the speaker or writer starts the communication. The listener or reader will definitely have nothing to listen or read if the speaker or writer has not transmitted any message.
CHARACTERISTICS OF LANGUAGE
1. It employs the vocal-auditory channel for which the human anatomy and physiology seem most specialized
2. It is passed from one person to another by learning and its stability is ensured through correction from parents, teachers, peers etc.
3. It is not limited to mere self expression; rather its regular use tends to produce effects on behaviour.
4. It consists of rules of reference which speakers agree upon.
5. There is relationship between content and means of expression
6. Language is organized hierarchically by combining words into syntactic structures or sentences, paragraphs, longer passages, etc.
7. It is creative
FUNCTIONS OF LANGUAGE
1. Language is a means of understanding reality and passing understanding others
2. Language is used for commerce
3. Language is a tool for governance and administration
4. Language is used for cultural promotion and social control
5. Language is used for religious purposes
6. Language is used to promote International cooperation and friendship
Thursday, August 20, 2009
LESSON 4: NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
NATURE OF COMMUNICATION
Communication by its nature implies connection with other human beings. Through communication, we are taught the nature of the world and through communication we, in turn, give shape to our worlds. To understand how we go about creating the process of communication, several important aspects need to be understood.
- CULTURE:
Culture is important in communication. Culture refers to the way people do things, the value people hold and the norms they follow. As we live and grow, we pick up culture from our environment. The learning process is both conscious and subconscious which much of it not obvious thus we absorb our cultural norms rather than learn them.
We function within local, regional and national culture. We also participate in local cultures and subcultures. Even in a small town, one can find a mixture of cultures as people divide along social lines, religious lines, professional lines and economic lines.
The same way we grow accustomed to ways of living we grow accustomed to ways of communicating. We learn the norms of the societies. We learn how to function within the framework of complicated rules by being part of a culture. We learn how we are to address our parents, siblings, our elders, coworkers, superiors and so on. We learn how to behave in a variety of situations such as games, meetings, religious services, funeral, weddings, classes, dates and family gatherings.
The main point about our culture is that our lives and our communication grow out of an entire set of values, beliefs and behaviour we have learned. To communicate clearly about those beliefs, or any other topic, we must be aware as possible of our own culture and how it has shaped us, and we must be aware of the culture and assumptions of the people with whom we communicate.
- LANGUAGE: OUR LINGUISTIC HERITAGE
Language is the basic way we communicate. We grow into our culture by observing and imitating those around us. We grow into language in much the same process, acquiring language skills by imitation, trial and error. For us to learn how to speak, we need contact with other language users. Human beings are born with the ability to make sounds and make them in reaction to their circumstances. For example, cries indicate discomfort, coos indicate comfort and then we move beyond sounds as a reaction to the present situation.
- LANGUAGE IS A SYMBOL SYSTEM
Human beings according to the great philosopher, Kenneth Burke are the “symbol using animals”
A symbol is something that stands for something else by association or connotation. for example, the cross is a religions symbol, schools have mascots, jewelry serves symbolic purposes when people wear wedding rings, or class rings
In language, symbols take other forms. For example, sounds constitute the primary form of the symbols. Language begins with the association of sounds with object or concepts. Combinations of sounds come to stand for the object or idea to be discussed. Instead of referring to a flower we can say rose, or we can say Ocean to refer to a body of water.
From the association of sounds with objects and ideas, the next step if to link the object to a marking system, the alphabet.
Writing emerges and changes the shape of communication. The invention of the alphabets makes possible the creation of messages that can exist outside the direct presence of their creators. Messages are no longer passed orally from one person to the nest, they message can be set down and left for others to discover.
Friday, August 7, 2009
Lesson 3: Areas of Communication Study
Areas of Communication Study:
The following are some of the areas of communication study.
1. Public Communication:
This is also known as Public Speaking which refers to a situation where an individual addresses an audience.
Examples of public speaking are political speakers, speakers at service organizations,
convocations, lectures, religious services and dedication ceremonies.
Public speaking requires the use of rhetoric (persuasive speech or writing skills)
Public speaking is an integral part of human lives which involves most profession, technical or artistic, demand making presentations to audiences.
2. Interpersonal Communication: This is the type of communication people make individually or in small groups.
Examples of Interpersonal communication are, talking with a friend, attending a job interview, arguing with a roommate, negotiating with sales personnel.
Interpersonal communication study helps us to understand how to respond in different settings such as between friends, married couples, superiors and subordinates as well as between parents and children. Interpersonal communication also helps us to know patterns of communication and how to deal within groups such as business or organizations.
3. Organizational communication:
This centers on the process of sending, receiving and interpreting messages within and between organizations.
To achieve the goals of organizations, members perform different tasks which are linked to the activities other members of the organization. Organizations are formed and maintained through communication.
the activities of organization continues even when particular individuals leave or retire from a company.
Studies in Organizational communication focuses on the modes and channels of communication, interaction between and superior and subordinates, and formal and informal relationships among organizational members.
Organization require constant adjustments of people, resources and goals. Thus mediation and conflict management are a large part of the study of organizational communication.
4. Mass Communication:
For a communication to be considered mass communication, it must involve a large number of people and also it is a mediated communication. A large audience or small group with which are dispersed and it is mediated because something comes between the sender and the final receiver. That something can be both mechanical or human. Mass communication distances the senders and receivers.
5. Public Affairs and Issue Management.
This field of study is related to public relation. however while public relations is concerned mainly with running campaigns and writing press release, Public affairs and issue management is is an out grown of the study of rhetoric.
Public affairs and issue Management investigates how organizations are affected by the communicative environment.
Most public affairs and issue management are in connection with crises of various kinds. One aspect of issue management involves planning ahead to help shape public opinions in the direction desired by the organization.
Saturday, August 1, 2009
Assignment 2
Assignment 2
Read pages 20-21 and answer the following questions.
1. Why is communication a process?
2. Describe Briefly how messages can be passed between the parties involved in a
communication process.
3. Why is interpretation Necessary in the communication process?
Submit by email to interculture304@yahoo.com
Make sure you write your name and class for easy identification
Thanks
Dr. KEN
Read pages 20-21 and answer the following questions.
1. Why is communication a process?
2. Describe Briefly how messages can be passed between the parties involved in a
communication process.
3. Why is interpretation Necessary in the communication process?
Submit by email to interculture304@yahoo.com
Make sure you write your name and class for easy identification
Thanks
Dr. KEN
Thursday, July 30, 2009
LESSON 2 THE STUDY OF COMMUNICATION
Communication as Human Activity
INFORMAL : This is the type of communication usually used with family and friends, contains shortened version of words, contains slang
Training in informal communication need not take place in class, we learn from imitation, trial and error.
Informal communication would be like having an online chatting or just having a conversation with a friend.
FORMAL : This is the type of communication is used in professional setting with proper conversation, no slang, manners are often used
Training in Formal communication takes place in school or structured classes. Instead of learning through imitation, learning takes place through examination of the nature of communication, interpersonal, small groups, and public speaking.
Formal Communication would be writing a business or other letter within the guidelines of that genre. Such as a cover letter for a resume', or a thank you letter or note for a present received.
It depends on what you are talking about. Formal in English is like hello and informal is hey. You would say hello if you were meeting someone important and hey if you were meeting a friend or family. In different languages it is different. Another example, yes and yeah
Communication is an integral part of life.
Communication begets more communication. When we receive story, we respond to it and then recount the tale to someone else.
We may think about the story to decide its application to our situation.
Also when we hear one story, we may feel motivated to tell our own story.
The study of communication is an integral part of life because people are able to read, understand and comment an idea is an example of our ability to learn language, to identify symbols and to respond to others.
Canterbury
Communication as Human Activity:
1. To create and sustain all our endeavors e.g arts, play, aggressions, relationships
2. Communication demands our attention
3. It is the study of human activity
4. It provides us with insight and skills (ability to solve problems)
5. Communication helps us to develop transferable knowledge
6. Communication helps us to develop critical thinking skills, language skills and people skills
Click Here for Lesson 1
Click Here for Lesson 3
INFORMAL : This is the type of communication usually used with family and friends, contains shortened version of words, contains slang
Training in informal communication need not take place in class, we learn from imitation, trial and error.
Informal communication would be like having an online chatting or just having a conversation with a friend.
FORMAL : This is the type of communication is used in professional setting with proper conversation, no slang, manners are often used
Training in Formal communication takes place in school or structured classes. Instead of learning through imitation, learning takes place through examination of the nature of communication, interpersonal, small groups, and public speaking.
Formal Communication would be writing a business or other letter within the guidelines of that genre. Such as a cover letter for a resume', or a thank you letter or note for a present received.
It depends on what you are talking about. Formal in English is like hello and informal is hey. You would say hello if you were meeting someone important and hey if you were meeting a friend or family. In different languages it is different. Another example, yes and yeah
Communication is an integral part of life.
Communication begets more communication. When we receive story, we respond to it and then recount the tale to someone else.
We may think about the story to decide its application to our situation.
Also when we hear one story, we may feel motivated to tell our own story.
The study of communication is an integral part of life because people are able to read, understand and comment an idea is an example of our ability to learn language, to identify symbols and to respond to others.
Communication as Human Activity:
Two reasons which distinguish human communication from animal communication are
a. We possess not only the ability to send and receive messages
b. We possess the ability to create, analyze and change our own patterns of communication.
This is because Human beings can think and talk about the past, present and the future. We can think and talk about what we see and unseen and we can think and talk from our imagination.
Importance of Communication Study1. To create and sustain all our endeavors e.g arts, play, aggressions, relationships
2. Communication demands our attention
3. It is the study of human activity
4. It provides us with insight and skills (ability to solve problems)
5. Communication helps us to develop transferable knowledge
6. Communication helps us to develop critical thinking skills, language skills and people skills
Click Here for Lesson 1
Click Here for Lesson 3
Wednesday, July 22, 2009
LESSON 3: The Field of Communication
I. Understanding, Defining and Meaning of Communication:
Many communication experts have attempted to define Communication.
Communication is the process of sending and receiving ideas by means of verbal symbols.
In this sense communication is a process through which human beings interact.
Communication can also be defined as the entire process through which the sender and receiver exchange message in form of information, experience, ideas, facts, beliefs, and attitudes.
In other words, communication is the process of sending, receiving, and interpreting messages through which we relate to each other and to our larger world as well.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
From the definition of Communication, we can see clearly that communication occurs when somebody says something to someone for a purpose.
There are several important elements of communication.
1. Sender (Source): this is the person from which the communication starts.
2. Message: This is the information or something the sender intends to send.
3. Receiver: This is the person who receives the information( message)
4. Stimulus: Something which propels communication. It is closely associated to the Source.
5. Medium: this refers to the form by which the source transfer his message to the receiver.
There are three media available to the source are oral, written and non verbal media.
Oral: when the source decides to speak out his mind
Written: when the source decides to put it in black and white
Non Verbal: the source decides to use gestures or body language.
6. The channel is another important element of communication. Channel is different from Medium. The medium is the form that the source used to put the message across while Channel is the actual conveyor of the message. For example, channel can be face to face, radio, television, telephone etc for oral communication, Letter, memorandum, report, newspaper, magazine etc for written communication while drawing, carvings, painting, sculpture etc for non Verbal Communication.
7. Feedback: This is the receiver's response to the sender's message. Without feedback, communication is incomplete. Feedback determines the success or failure of the communication between the sender and receiver.
8. Noise: This is also another element of communication because it can affect the success of communication. Noise refers to all distractions, which may obstruct any stage of the communication process.
There are three types of noise:
Physical noise: any natural of event which can be seen, heard or touched but has nothing to do with thought or mind. E.g radio, television sound or any impairment of hearing, vision or speech.
Psychological noise: this is traceable to the expression of mind and may include emotional outburst, poor mental attitude or fatigue
Linguistic noise: This concerns the inability to use or understand the language of communication effectively.
e.g Semantic noise: wrong choice of words, misinterpretation of words and unfamiliarity of words.
Grammatical noise: This may be as a result of syntax error or wrong use of grammar.
Phonological noise: This may occur as a result of poor pronunciation, poor intonation or poor stress.
9. Signal: This is the last element of communication. this refers to symbols and codes employed by those involved in communication. If the source understands the language of communication well, he will be able to encode the message perfectly. A thorough understanding of the language will also enable the receiver to decode the message accurately.
Many communication experts have attempted to define Communication.
Communication is the process of sending and receiving ideas by means of verbal symbols.
In this sense communication is a process through which human beings interact.
Communication can also be defined as the entire process through which the sender and receiver exchange message in form of information, experience, ideas, facts, beliefs, and attitudes.
In other words, communication is the process of sending, receiving, and interpreting messages through which we relate to each other and to our larger world as well.
ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION
From the definition of Communication, we can see clearly that communication occurs when somebody says something to someone for a purpose.
There are several important elements of communication.
1. Sender (Source): this is the person from which the communication starts.
2. Message: This is the information or something the sender intends to send.
3. Receiver: This is the person who receives the information( message)
4. Stimulus: Something which propels communication. It is closely associated to the Source.
5. Medium: this refers to the form by which the source transfer his message to the receiver.
There are three media available to the source are oral, written and non verbal media.
Oral: when the source decides to speak out his mind
Written: when the source decides to put it in black and white
Non Verbal: the source decides to use gestures or body language.
6. The channel is another important element of communication. Channel is different from Medium. The medium is the form that the source used to put the message across while Channel is the actual conveyor of the message. For example, channel can be face to face, radio, television, telephone etc for oral communication, Letter, memorandum, report, newspaper, magazine etc for written communication while drawing, carvings, painting, sculpture etc for non Verbal Communication.
7. Feedback: This is the receiver's response to the sender's message. Without feedback, communication is incomplete. Feedback determines the success or failure of the communication between the sender and receiver.
8. Noise: This is also another element of communication because it can affect the success of communication. Noise refers to all distractions, which may obstruct any stage of the communication process.
There are three types of noise:
Physical noise: any natural of event which can be seen, heard or touched but has nothing to do with thought or mind. E.g radio, television sound or any impairment of hearing, vision or speech.
Psychological noise: this is traceable to the expression of mind and may include emotional outburst, poor mental attitude or fatigue
Linguistic noise: This concerns the inability to use or understand the language of communication effectively.
e.g Semantic noise: wrong choice of words, misinterpretation of words and unfamiliarity of words.
Grammatical noise: This may be as a result of syntax error or wrong use of grammar.
Phonological noise: This may occur as a result of poor pronunciation, poor intonation or poor stress.
9. Signal: This is the last element of communication. this refers to symbols and codes employed by those involved in communication. If the source understands the language of communication well, he will be able to encode the message perfectly. A thorough understanding of the language will also enable the receiver to decode the message accurately.
Friday, July 17, 2009
Assignment 1
Read the exercise on course book pages 2-6.
Answer any one question on Page 6 and any other one question on Page 9
Submit your answers by email to interculture304@yahoo.com or interculture203@yahoo.com
Answer any one question on Page 6 and any other one question on Page 9
Submit your answers by email to interculture304@yahoo.com or interculture203@yahoo.com
Sunday, July 12, 2009
LESSON 1
INTRODUCTION TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION.
What is intercultural communication?
Intercultural communication refers to an academic field of study and research about how people from different countries and cultures behave, communicate and perceive the world around them.
Intercultural communication also includes other fields such as anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication.
Intercultural communication can also be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ from each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour.
The theories developed by the researchers and academics can and have been applied to many fields such as business, management, marketing, advertising and website design.
As business becomes more and more international, many companies need to know how best to structure their companies manage staff and communicate with customers. Intercultural communication gives them an insight into the areas they need to address or understand.
Intercultural communication theories are now also used within the education, health care and other public services due to growing multicultural populations.
WHY DO WE COMMUNICATE? WHAT HAPPENS IF WE DON'T COMMUNICATE?
Research has shown that when people are isolated and made to grow without contact with others, they will not develop to their fullest potentials. People who are isolated have capabilities less than those who are raised within the confines of civilization.
People who don’t communicate or interact with others will not be wise, rather they become stunted by the experience rather than enhanced by it.
People have always needed to communicate with each other for many reasons:
to spread news
to warn of dangers
to pass on information
to ask for help
In order to communicate effectively, humans developed languages, signs and writing.
CLICK here for lesson two
What is intercultural communication?
Intercultural communication refers to an academic field of study and research about how people from different countries and cultures behave, communicate and perceive the world around them.
Intercultural communication also includes other fields such as anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication.
Intercultural communication can also be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ from each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behaviour.
The theories developed by the researchers and academics can and have been applied to many fields such as business, management, marketing, advertising and website design.
As business becomes more and more international, many companies need to know how best to structure their companies manage staff and communicate with customers. Intercultural communication gives them an insight into the areas they need to address or understand.
Intercultural communication theories are now also used within the education, health care and other public services due to growing multicultural populations.
WHY DO WE COMMUNICATE? WHAT HAPPENS IF WE DON'T COMMUNICATE?
Research has shown that when people are isolated and made to grow without contact with others, they will not develop to their fullest potentials. People who are isolated have capabilities less than those who are raised within the confines of civilization.
People who don’t communicate or interact with others will not be wise, rather they become stunted by the experience rather than enhanced by it.
People have always needed to communicate with each other for many reasons:
to spread news
to warn of dangers
to pass on information
to ask for help
In order to communicate effectively, humans developed languages, signs and writing.
CLICK here for lesson two
Sunday, July 5, 2009
Why Some People Engage In More Eye Contact Than Others
Why Some People Engage In More Eye Contact Than Others
Eye contact is one of the primal ways of communicating. It serves a crucial role in mother-child bonding. In fact, research conducted in the 1940s showed that the image of two eyes is the minimal visual stimulus infants need to elicit a smile.
We also know that eye contact increases adults' brain activity and heart rates.
However, before we go any further, let's distinguish between gazing and making eye contact. Gazing refers to looking at different points on the person's face besides the eyes; we might be distracted by a mole on the right cheek or caught by the peculiar way he/she turns up their mouth. Eye contact denotes looking into the other person's eyes.
Patricia Webbink, a psychologist who has studied the eyes and their place in human communication for more than two decades, defines eye contact as, "The mutual interaction that occurs when two pairs of eyes meet." It plays a powerful role in interpersonal bonding, she explains. "In a world characterized by mechanization, threats of violence, and social alienation, the need for increased interaction between people is apparent.
The power of eye contact is very real: the mutual gaze is a major form of communication that promotes intimacy." In fact, many people who are deaf insist on eye contact in interactions; they depend heavily on the emotions expressed in the eyes to supplement the vocal intonations they miss in the conversation.
Although we may crave eye contact with others, it is a rule of nonverbal communication that no one maintains it exclusively or continuously. We sustain eye contact approximately 60 percent of the time during interactions. That means most normal everyday interactions are a combination of gazing and eye contact.
In the course of a thirty-second interaction, research tracking the eyes has shown that people will gaze at fifteen different spots on or near the face, including the unusual design on the frame of a friend's glasses, tan ear popping out of her hair, her nonverbal affect, the peculiar way she moves her lips along with her eyes. We can predict you will engage in more eye contact if:
1. You are discussing easy, impersonal topics.
2. There is nothing else to look at.
3. You like or love your partner.
4. You are interested in your partner's reactions; you're interpersonally involved.
5. You are trying to dominate or influence your partner.
6. You are from a culture that emphasizes visual contact in interaction.
7. You are an extrovert.
8. You have high affiliation needs or inclusion needs.
9. You are listening rather than talking.
10. You are a male and are more physically distant from your partner.
Eye contact is one of the primal ways of communicating. It serves a crucial role in mother-child bonding. In fact, research conducted in the 1940s showed that the image of two eyes is the minimal visual stimulus infants need to elicit a smile.
We also know that eye contact increases adults' brain activity and heart rates.
However, before we go any further, let's distinguish between gazing and making eye contact. Gazing refers to looking at different points on the person's face besides the eyes; we might be distracted by a mole on the right cheek or caught by the peculiar way he/she turns up their mouth. Eye contact denotes looking into the other person's eyes.
Patricia Webbink, a psychologist who has studied the eyes and their place in human communication for more than two decades, defines eye contact as, "The mutual interaction that occurs when two pairs of eyes meet." It plays a powerful role in interpersonal bonding, she explains. "In a world characterized by mechanization, threats of violence, and social alienation, the need for increased interaction between people is apparent.
The power of eye contact is very real: the mutual gaze is a major form of communication that promotes intimacy." In fact, many people who are deaf insist on eye contact in interactions; they depend heavily on the emotions expressed in the eyes to supplement the vocal intonations they miss in the conversation.
Although we may crave eye contact with others, it is a rule of nonverbal communication that no one maintains it exclusively or continuously. We sustain eye contact approximately 60 percent of the time during interactions. That means most normal everyday interactions are a combination of gazing and eye contact.
In the course of a thirty-second interaction, research tracking the eyes has shown that people will gaze at fifteen different spots on or near the face, including the unusual design on the frame of a friend's glasses, tan ear popping out of her hair, her nonverbal affect, the peculiar way she moves her lips along with her eyes. We can predict you will engage in more eye contact if:
1. You are discussing easy, impersonal topics.
2. There is nothing else to look at.
3. You like or love your partner.
4. You are interested in your partner's reactions; you're interpersonally involved.
5. You are trying to dominate or influence your partner.
6. You are from a culture that emphasizes visual contact in interaction.
7. You are an extrovert.
8. You have high affiliation needs or inclusion needs.
9. You are listening rather than talking.
10. You are a male and are more physically distant from your partner.
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